Events

Indeed, the last two articles Post Date: Wed, 13 Aug 2008 15:00:14 +0000
THE IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTOEY AND POLITICS [This is the first of a series of four articles dealing with one phase of the history of the administration of Indian affairs in the United States with special reference to Iowa. Indeed, the last two articles in the series will be devoted entirely to the work of the Indian agents in the Iowa country.

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] Since the time Post Date: Wed, 13 Aug 2008 14:45:47 +0000
The subject of this study was suggested by Dr Louis Pelzer, Assistant Professor of History in the State University of Iowa, under whose direction the research was first car- ried on. AUTHOR.] Since the time when the first white settlers landed in America there has been almost constant friction between the aboriginal inhabitants and the newcomers.

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The treachery of Post Date: Wed, 13 Aug 2008 14:34:59 +0000
Along the line of the constantly receding frontier the two races have faced each other for centuries sometimes as open enemies, and always as rivals. The various national and State gov- ernments in North America have struggled with the prob- lem of pacifying and protecting the Indians without perma- nently checking the advance of the pioneers. The treachery of which the white people have been accused has been, for the most part, due to the struggle between these opposing forces the desire of the government to satisfy the In- dians, at least temporarily, and the irresistible expansion of the white race.

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When the Indians refused Post Date: Wed, 13 Aug 2008 14:21:04 +0000
When the English colonists first came in contact with the natives three lines of procedure were open to them: (1) to recognize the sovereignty of the Indian tribes and their ownership of the land; (2) to recognize their political sov- ereignty without recognizing their right to the soil; or (3) to refuse to treat with them as independent nations in any way. At first the English were inclined to adopt the second policy, at least in theory, and made treaties with the various tribes. When the Indians refused to cede lands, the colo- nists had no scruples against seizing the country by force ; and the right of the Indians to their hunting grounds was disregarded.

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The status of the Indian Post Date: Wed, 13 Aug 2008 14:08:52 +0000
The United States made its first official treaty with the Indians (the Delawares) in 1778 and maintained the pretence of recognizing the sovereignty of the native tribes until 1871, 1 when treaty-making with Indian tribes was prohibited. During all this time, however, the United States denied to the Indians the right to transfer their lands without the consent of the government at Washington, often compelling them to cede lands against their will. The status of the Indian tribes and of individual Indians has always been indefinite.

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The story of one failure Post Date: Wed, 13 Aug 2008 13:57:24 +0000
Appeals to the Supreme Court have result- ed in decisions no more satisfactory than the opinion handed down in 1832 by Associate Justice John McLean in which it was held that "They [the Indians] do not constitute a foreign state and yet, having the right of self government, they, in some sense, form a state. " 2 As the Indians slowly retreated before the white men, the government of England, the governments of the Colonies, and later the government of the United States, each in turn, attempted to establish peace. The story of one failure has been the story of all such attempts.

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There were protests, massacres Post Date: Wed, 13 Aug 2008 13:40:27 +0000
A treaty was made; friendship was declared; the Indians ceded lands and re- ceived in return annuities and presents; a boundary line was marked off ; and for a few years there was a peace which was only suspended hostility. Then the pioneers, driven westward by insatiable land-hunger, crossed the line and settled on the unceded lands of the Indians. There were protests, massacres, and retaliations, a campaign by the troops, and another treaty in which more land was ceded, more presents given, and another "peace" was established.

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In early colonial times, these Post Date: Wed, 13 Aug 2008 13:21:16 +0000
In so far as these periods of open hostility constituted real wars they contradict the claim that all race wars are fo- mented by governments and that racial antagonism between individuals is not a natural feeling. In the intercourse between the white men and the natives, the English-speaking settlements have been represented by six general classes of individuals, so far as direct contact is concerned, namely: explorers, missionaries, traders, set- tlers, military officers, and official agents and commissioners. In early colonial times, these groups were not clearly de- fined.

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The development of a class Post Date: Wed, 13 Aug 2008 13:05:32 +0000
Traders were explorers and often became settlers. Most frontiersmen engaged in Indian trade; and mission- aries, traders, officers, and settlers sometimes acted as of- ficial representatives of the government. The development of a class of public officers whose sole duty was to adminis- ter Indian affairs was a slow process, yet the different lines of the work now performed by the Indian agents were to be found in colonial times.

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The Governors or their delegates Post Date: Wed, 13 Aug 2008 12:45:43 +0000
Experience has resulted only in a clearer definition of the work and in higher specialization. Before the middle of the eighteenth century official repre- sentatives of the white mans government were present among the Indians only on special occasions or in a quasi- public capacity. The Governors or their delegates occa- sionally met the Indians in council and made necessary agreements with them.

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